REFERENCES
3. Salles, A.; Bjaalie, J. G.; Evers, K.; et al. The human brain project: responsible brain research for the benefit of society. Neuron 2019, 101, 380-4.
4. Agiza, A. A.; Oakley, K.; Rosenstein, J. K.; et al. Digital circuits and neural networks based on acid-base chemistry implemented by robotic fluid handling. Nat. Commun. 2023, 14, 496.
7. Ji, J.; Pan, Y.; Zhang, Z.; Xia, T.; Zhang, F.; Huang, Y. AI-enabled flexible sensing skin for next-generation aircraft: toward embodied intelligence. Research 2026, 9, 1305.
8. Xu, H.; Wang, Z.; Wang, Y.; et al. Intelligent metasurface cloak reaches a new plateau: AI-assisted surface engineering for self-adaptive supportive invisibility. Research 2026, 9, 1130.
11. Koch, U.; Uhl, C.; Hettrich, H.; et al. A monolithic bipolar CMOS electronic-plasmonic high-speed transmitter. Nat. Electron. 2020, 3, 338-45.
12. De Schotten M, Forkel SJ. The emergent properties of the connected brain. Science 2022, 378, 505-10.
13. Dorkenwald, S.; Matsliah, A.; Sterling, A. R.; et al. Neuronal wiring diagram of an adult brain. Nature 2024, 634, 124-38.
15. Jin, B.; Wang, Z.; Wang, T.; Meng, J. Memristor-based artificial neural networks for hardware neuromorphic computing. Research 2025, 8, 0758.
16. Xie, J.; Shan, X.; Zou, N.; et al. All-optically controlled memristive device based on Cu2O/TiO2 heterostructure toward neuromorphic visual system. Research 2025, 8, 0580.
17. Pandey, S. V.; Saurav, K. V.; Ismail, A.; Rahaman, S.; Radha, B. Nanofluidic ionic memory for next-generation computing. Nat. Rev. Mater. 2026, 919.
18. Sarpeshkar, R. Analog versus digital: extrapolating from electronics to neurobiology. Neural. Comput. 1998, 10, 1601-38.
19. Debus, C.; Piraud, M.; Streit, A.; Theis, F.; Götz, M. Reporting electricity consumption is essential for sustainable AI. Nat. Mach. Intell. 2023, 5, 1176-8.
20. D'orgeval, A.; Sheehan, S.; Avenas, Q.; Assoumou, E.; Sessa, V. Generative AI impact assessment through a life cycle analysis of multiple data center typologies. Appl. Energy. 2026, 406, 127288.
21. Yang, J.; Xiao, W.; Jiang, C.; Hossain, M. S.; Muhammad, G.; Amin, S. U. AI-powered green cloud and data center. IEEE. Access. 2019, 7, 4195-203.
22. Wang, T.; Tufenkjian, A.; Ajijola, O. A.; Oka, Y. Molecular and functional diversity of the autonomic nervous system. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 2025, 26, 607-22.
23. Gunsch, G.; Paradie, E.; Townsend, K. L. Peripheral nervous system glia in support of metabolic tissue functions. Trends. Endocrinol. Metab. 2023, 34, 622-39.
24. Bucci, A.; Büttner, M.; Domdei, N.; et al. Synchronization of visual perception within the human fovea. Nat. Neurosci. 2025, 28, 1959-67.
25. Zhang, Y.; Luan, P.; Qiao, Q.; et al. An axonal brake on striatal dopamine output by cholinergic interneurons. Nat. Neurosci. 2025, 28, 783-94.
26. Varró, A.; Tomek, J.; Nagy, N.; et al. Cardiac transmembrane ion channels and action potentials: cellular physiology and arrhythmogenic behavior. Physiol. Rev. 2021, 101, 1083-176.
27. Yang, H.; Wang, K.; Chen, Y.; et al. Excitatory synapses onto axonic spines jump-start action potentials and route information flow. Nat. Neurosci. 2026, 29, 1303-12.
28. Mariantoni, M.; Wang, H.; Yamamoto, T.; et al. Implementing the quantum von neumann architecture with superconducting circuits. Science 2011, 334, 61-5.
29. Gonzalez-zalba, M. F.; De, Franceschi. S.; Charbon, E.; Meunier, T.; Vinet, M.; Dzurak, A. S. Scaling silicon-based quantum computing using CMOS technology. Nat. Electron. 2021, 4, 872-84.
30. Pal, A.; Chavan, T.; Jabbour, J.; Cao, W.; Banerjee, K. Three-dimensional transistors with two-dimensional semiconductors for future CMOS scaling. Nat. Electron. 2024, 7, 1147-57.
31. Varadarajan, S. G.; Hunyara, J. L.; Hamilton, N. R.; Kolodkin, A. L.; Huberman, A. D. Central nervous system regeneration. Cell 2022, 185, 77-94.
32. Yoder, N.; Yoshioka, C.; Gouaux, E. Gating mechanisms of acid-sensing ion channels. Nature 2018, 555, 397-401.
33. Luo, Y.; Liu, B.; Qiu, Y.; et al. Divalent metal ions enhance bone regeneration through modulation of nervous systems and metabolic pathways. Bioact. Mater. 2025, 47, 432-47.
34. Davila-Velderrain, J.; Van Giesen, L. Voltage-gated ion channel diversity underlies neuronal excitability and nervous system evolution. Nat. Commun. 2025, 16, 11534.
35. Zhao, J.; Zhou, H.; Fu, T.; Wang, H.; Zhang, T.; Li, L. High-performance iontronic hydrogel acoustic sensor for low-frequency underwater sound detection and intelligent recognition. Research 2026, 9, 1292.
36. Zhang, L.; Xie, Y.; Shi, S.; et al. Bioderived cellulose aerogel fibers with hierarchical porosity for millisecond hydrovoltaic sensing. Research 2026, 9, 1324.
37. Zhang, D.; Liu, W.; Feng, L.; et al. Innovative advances in droplet microfluidics. Research 2025, 8, 0856.
38. Su, K.; Bian, Z.; Mu, Y.; et al. Pyrrolidine ionic liquid enables dynamic EDL regulation for highly stable aqueous Zn Ion capacitors. Energy. Storage. Mater. 2025, 81, 104480.
39. Wu, Q.; Qi, Y. Revealing heterogeneous electric double layer (EDL) structures of localized high-concentration electrolytes (LHCEs) and their impact on solid-electrolyte interphase (SEI) formation in lithium batteries. Energy. Environ. Sci. 2025, 18, 3036-46.
40. Lim, Y.; Kim, Y.; Kim, N.; Choi, J. Ion pairing dynamics leading to a non-linear electrochemical structure of an electric double layer on a carbon electrode. Nano. Energy. 2025, 146, 111506.
41. Lee, D.; Jeon, Y. U.; An, M.; et al. Tailored zwitterion electrolyte-driven electric double layer dynamics for enhanced ion retention in artificial synapses. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2025, 36, e13684.
42. Zhang, Y.; Huang, H.; Tian, J.; et al. Modelling electrified microporous carbon/electrolyte electrochemical interface and unraveling charge storage mechanism by machine learning accelerated molecular dynamics. Energy. Storage. Mater. 2023, 63, 103069.
43. Shin, S.; Kim, D. H.; Bae, G.; et al. On the importance of the electric double layer structure in aqueous electrocatalysis. Nat. Commun. 2022, 13, 174.
44. Chen, B.; Zhai, Z.; Huang, N.; et al. Highly localized charges of confined electrical double-layers inside 0.7-nm layered channels. Adv. Energy. Mater. 2023, 13, 2300716.
45. Unalan, H. E.; Yang, Y.; Zhang, Y.; et al. ZnO nanowire and WS2 nanotube electronics. IEEE. Trans. Electron. Devices. 2008, 55, 2988-3000.
46. Wang, S.; Wang, Y.; Cai, X.; et al. A high-frequency artificial nerve based on homogeneously integrated organic electrochemical transistors. Nat. Electron. 2025, 8, 254-66.
47. Xing, Y.; Zhou, M.; Si, Y.; et al. Integrated opposite charge grafting induced ionic-junction fiber. Nat. Commun. 2023, 14, 2355.
48. Xiong, T.; Li, C.; He, X.; et al. Neuromorphic functions with a polyelectrolyte-confined fluidic memristor. Science 2023, 379, 156-61.
49. He, X.; Zhang, K.; Li, T.; Jiang, Y.; Yu, P.; Mao, L. Micrometer-scale ion current rectification at polyelectrolyte brush-modified micropipets. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2017, 139, 1396-9.
50. Helmholtz, H. Ueber einige Gesetze der Vertheilung elektrischer Ströme in körperlichen Leitern mit Anwendung auf die thierisch-elektrischen Versuche. Ann. . Phys. 2006, 165, 211-33.
51. Gouy, M. Sur la constitution de la charge électrique à la surface d'un électrolyte. J. Phys. Theor. Appl. 1910, 9, 457-68.
52. Chapman, D. L. A contribution to the theory of electrocapillarity. Philos. Mag. 1913, 25, 475-81.
53. Grahame, D. C. The electrical double layer and the theory of electrocapillarity. Chem. Rev. 2002, 41, 441-501.
54. Wang, Z. L.; Wang, A. C. On the origin of contact-electrification. Mater. Today. 2019, 30, 34-51.
55. Lin, S.; Xu, L.; Chi, Wang. A.; Wang, Z. L. Quantifying electron-transfer in liquid-solid contact electrification and the formation of electric double-layer. Nat. Commun. 2020, 11, 399.
56. Lin, S.; Chen, X.; Wang, Z. L. Contact electrification at the liquid-solid interface. Chem. Rev. 2021, 122, 5209-32.
57. Li, X.; Li, S.; Guo, X.; Shao, J.; Wang, Z. L.; Wei, D. Triboiontronics for efficient energy and information flow. Matter 2023, 6, 3912-26.
58. Li, X.; Wang, Z. L.; Wei, D. Bioinspired iontronic architectures for neuromorphic intelligence. Innovation 2026, 7, 101424.
59. Li, X.; Wang, Z. L.; Wei, D. Redefining solid-liquid interface probing via contact electrification-driven paradigm. Sci. Bull. 2026, 71, 2659-62.
60. Zhang, L.; Wang, D. Triboiontronics based on dynamic electric double layer regulation. Matter 2023, 6, 3698-9.
61. Zhang, H.; Zhang, Y.; He, P.; et al. Quantifying the triboelectric series of liquid phase materials. Adv. Mater. 2026, 38, e73450.
62. Liu, C.; Wang, Z.; Tong, X.; et al. Water-evaporation-induced direct current electricity generation based on stretchable hydrogel/Al2O3. Matter 2025, 8, 102200.
63. Xia, Y.; Ye, C.; Han, R.; et al. Columnar structure solid-liquid nanogenerator based on triboiontronics. Nano. Energy. 2026, 150, 111783.
64. Liang, X.; Liu, S.; Lin, S.; Yang, H.; Jiang, T.; Wang, Z. L. Liquid-solid triboelectric nanogenerator arrays based on dynamic electric-double-layer for harvesting water wave energy. Adv. Energy. Mater. 2023, 13, 2300571.
65. Yin, J.; Li, X.; Yu, J.; Zhang, Z.; Zhou, J.; Guo, W. Generating electricity by moving a droplet of ionic liquid along graphene. Nat. Nanotechnol. 2014, 9, 378-83.
67. Yang, S.; Su, Y.; Xu, Y.; et al. Mechanism of electric power generation from ionic droplet motion on polymer supported graphene. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2018, 140, 13746-52.
68. Kumar, S.; Sharma, A.; Gupta, V.; Tomar, M. Development of novel MoS2 hydrovoltaic nanogenerators for electricity generation from moving NaCl droplet. J. Alloys. Compd. 2021, 884, 161058.
69. Wei, Y.; Li, X.; Yang, Z.; Shao, J.; Wang, Z. L.; Wei, D. Contact electrification at the solid-liquid transition interface. Mater. Today. 2024, 74, 2-11.
70. Li, R.; Li, X.; Zhang, Z.; Willatzen, M.; Wang, Z. L.; Wei, D. Triboelectric programmed droplet manipulation for plug-and-play assembly. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2024, 35, 2416457.
71. Wang, K.; Wang, X.; Sun, Y.; et al. Macroscopic liquid superlubric triboelectric nanogenerator: an in-depth understanding of solid-liquid interfacial charge behavior. Nano. Energy. 2024, 129, 110038.
72. Nan, Y.; Wang, X.; Xu, H.; et al. Customizing alternating and direct current dual-mode solid-liquid triboelectric nanogenerator. Nano. Energy. 2025, 137, 110812.
73. Wang, M.; Liang, Y.; Zhang, L.; et al. Solid-liquid triboelectric nanogenerators as physicochemical encoders for intelligent liquid recognition. Interdiscip. Mater. 2026, 5, 573-608.
74. Fan, H.; Zeng, Z.; Deng, C.; et al. High-performance solid-liquid triboelectric nanogenerator enabled by dual physicochemical modification for wearable sensing. Nano. Energy. 2025, 140, 111061.
75. Zhao, X. J.; Zhu, G.; Zhao, Z. H.; Wang, Z. L.; Wang, J. High durable bio-inspired self-cleaning solid-liquid contact triboelectric nanogenerator for water wave energy harvesting. Nano. Energy. 2025, 139, 110971.
76. Li, Y.; Wang, K.; Yang, H.; et al. Solid-liquid triboelectric nanogenerator based self-sensing vibration suppression device. Nano. Energy. 2024, 131, 110211.
77. Ro, Y. G.; Na, S.; Kim, J.; et al. Iontronics: neuromorphic sensing and energy harvesting. ACS. Nano. 2025, 19, 24425-507.
78. Mcnamee, C. E. Effect of a liquid flow on the forces between charged solid surfaces and the non-equilibrium electric double layer. Adv. Colloid. Interface. Sci. 2019, 266, 21-33.
79. Zhou, S.; Panse, K. S.; Motevaselian, M. H.; Aluru, N. R.; Zhang, Y. Three-dimensional molecular mapping of ionic liquids at electrified interfaces. ACS. Nano. 2020, 14, 17515-23.
80. Yu, L.; Yao, N.; Gao, Y.; et al. Probing the electric double layer structure at nitrogen-doped graphite electrodes by constant-potential molecular dynamics simulations. J. Energy. Chem. 2024, 93, 299-305.
81. Zhang, C.; Calegari, Andrade. M. F.; Goldsmith, Z. K.; et al. Molecular-scale insights into the electrical double layer at oxide-electrolyte interfaces. Nat. Commun. 2024, 15, 10270.
82. Wang, Y.; Liang, B.; Zhu, J.; et al. Manipulating electric double layer adsorption for stable solid-electrolyte interphase in 2.3 Ah Zn-pouch cells. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2023, 62, e202302583.
83. Qin, S.; Zhang, J.; Xu, M.; et al. Formulating self-repairing solid electrolyte interface via dynamic electric double layer for practical zinc ion batteries. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2024, 63, e202410422.
84. Kim, M. M.; Choi, C. H.; Kim, H. Electric double layer charging, a new framework for optimizing electrocatalyst design and performance. ACS. Energy. Lett. 2026, 11, 2499-507.
85. Li, Y.; Ping, B.; Qu, J.; et al. Constructing autoregulative electric double layer through dielectric effect toward fast charging zinc metal anode. Adv. Energy. Mater. 2025, 15, 2405804.
86. Chen, L.; Zhang, H.; Li, R.; et al. Dynamic shielding of electrified interface enables high-voltage lithium batteries. Chem 2024, 10, 1196-212.
87. Jing, T.; Xu, B.; Yang, Y. Liquid doping materials as micro-carrier of functional molecules for functionalization of triboelectric materials and flexible triboelectric nanogenerators for energy harvesting and gesture detection. Nano. Energy. 2020, 74, 104856.
88. Wang, W.; Meng, J.; Zhang, L.; et al. Liquid jet-based triboelectric nanogenerator. Adv. Mater. 2025, 38, e07055.
89. Wu, Q.; Zhang, L.; Wang, W.; et al. High-performance pneumatic solid-liquid triboelectric nanogenerator. Nano. Energy. 2024, 123, 109391.
90. Qin, H.; Xu, L.; Lin, S.; et al. Underwater energy harvesting and sensing by sweeping out the charges in an electric double layer using an oil droplet. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2022, 32, 2111662.
91. Bohra, D.; Chaudhry, J. H.; Burdyny, T.; Pidko, E. A.; Smith, W. A. Modeling the electrical double layer to understand the reaction environment in a CO2 electrocatalytic system. Energy. Environ. Sci. 2019, 12, 3380-9.
92. Lin, Z. H.; Cheng, G.; Lin, L.; Lee, S.; Wang, Z. L. Water-solid surface contact electrification and its use for harvesting liquid-wave energy. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2013, 52, 12545-9.
93. Li, X.; Wei, Y.; Gao, X.; Zhang, Z.; Wang, Z. L.; Wei, D. Harnessing triboiontronic Maxwell’s demon by triboelectric-induced polarization for efficient energy-information flow. Joule 2025, 9, 101888.
94. Li, X.; Wei, Y.; Ouyang, Y.; Wang, Z. L.; Cao, Y.; Di, W. Iontrovoltaic effect based on triboelectrically induced ion polarization at semiconductor-liquid interfaces. Nat. Commun. 2026, 77245.
95. Zachman, M. J.; Tu, Z.; Choudhury, S.; Archer, L. A.; Kourkoutis, L. F. Cryo-STEM mapping of solid-liquid interfaces and dendrites in lithium-metal batteries. Nature 2018, 560, 345-9.
96. Zhang, Q.; Song, Z.; Sun, X.; et al. Atomic dynamics of electrified solid-liquid interfaces in liquid-cell TEM. Nature 2024, 630, 643-7.
97. Zhang, J.; Gu, G.; Liu, Q.; Wang, Z. L. Triboelectric nanogenerator as a probe for investigating charge transfer at liquid-solid interfaces. Chem. Rev. 2026, 126, 5490-517.
98. Wang, X.; Ying, Y.; Li, X.; et al. Preferred planar crystal growth and uniform solid electrolyte interfaces enabled by anion receptors for stable aqueous Zn batteries. Energy. Environ. Sci. 2023, 16, 4572-83.
99. Zhang, Y.; Ni, Y.; Liang, G.; et al. Transistor-based bio-hybrid artificial afferent nerves for a mainly bio-composite reflex arc system. SmartSys 2026, 2, e70033.
100. Li, N.; Bai, C.; Yang, X.; et al. Electrically driven hydrogel actuators from turgor pressure to ciliary motion. SmartSys 2026, 2, e70030.
101. Wu, Q.; Mcdowell, M. T.; Qi, Y. Effect of the electric double layer (EDL) in multicomponent electrolyte reduction and solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) formation in lithium batteries. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2023, 145, 2473-84.
102. Bendadesse, E.; Morozov, A. V.; Abakumov, A. M.; Perrot, H.; Tarascon, J.; Sel, O. Deciphering the double-layer structure and dynamics on a model LixMoO3 interface by advanced electrogravimetric analysis. ACS. Nano. 2022, 16, 14907-17.
103. Wu, C. H.; Pascal, T. A.; Baskin, A.; et al. Molecular-scale structure of electrode-electrolyte interfaces: the case of platinum in aqueous sulfuric acid. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2018, 140, 16237-44.
104. Zhang, M.; Chen, Y.; Melander, M. M.; Huang, J. Electrochemical electron transfer: key concepts, theories, and parameterization via atomistic simulations. Chem. Rev. 2026, 126, 7407-64.
106. Luo, C.; Zhou, L.; Xu, R.; Hou, Y.; Hou, X. CNT array-based aluminum bipolar electrode iontronic memristors. Iontronics 2026, 2, 6.
107. Lei, C.; He, J.; Chen, W.; Kong, X.; Wen, L. Biotic iontronics: foundations for the direct biotic-abiotic communication and modulation. Iontronics 2026, 2, 8.
108. Yoo, D.; Jang, S.; Cho, S.; Choi, D.; Kim, D. S. A liquid triboelectric series. Adv. Mater. 2023, 35, 2300699.
109. Kim, W.; Choi, D.; Kwon, J.; Choi, D. A self-powered triboelectric microfluidic system for liquid sensing. J. Mater. Chem. A. 2018, 6, 14069-76.
110. Cai, C.; Luo, B.; Liu, Y.; et al. Advanced triboelectric materials for liquid energy harvesting and emerging application. Mater. Today. 2022, 52, 299-326.
111. Zhang, R.; Lin, H.; Pan, Y.; et al. Liquid-liquid triboelectric nanogenerator for harvesting distributed energy (Adv. Funct. Mater. 51/2022). Adv. Funct. Mater. 2022, 32, 2270293.
112. Wu, H.; Zhao, L.; Guo, H.; et al. Tribo-mechano transduction of solid-liquid triboelectric nanogenerators via boundary layer theory. Renew. Energy. 2026, 258, 124958.
113. Li, Y.; Liu, M.; Song, G.; et al. Laser-textured superamphiphobic LF-PTFE solid-liquid hybrid triboelectric nanogenerator for stable energy harvesting and self-powered liquid sensing. Nano. Energy. 2026, 155, 112123.
114. Wu, Y.; Lei, R.; Cao, J.; et al. High-sensitivity flexible self-powered pressure sensor based on solid-liquid triboelectrification. ACS. Sens. 2025, 10, 2347-57.
115. Dong, Y.; Wang, N.; Yang, D.; Wang, J.; Lu, W.; Wang, D. Robust solid-liquid triboelectric nanogenerators: mechanisms, strategies and applications. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2023, 33, 2300764.
116. Wang, Y.; Guo, H.; Liao, J.; Qin, Y.; Ali, A.; Li, C. Solid-liquid triboelectric nanogenerator based on curvature effect for harvesting mechanical and wave energy. Chem. Eng. J. 2023, 476, 146571.
117. Luo, H.; Ni, X.; Cui, Y.; et al. High stability rotary solid-liquid triboelectric nanogenerator for ionic liquid detection. Nano. Energy. 2025, 138, 110870.
118. Han, J.; Huang, R.; Shan, C.; et al. Non-electrode droplet manipulation via triboelectrification near-field energy transmission. Research 2026, 9, 1277.
119. Li, X.; Tao, J.; Wang, X.; Zhu, J.; Pan, C.; Wang, Z. L. Networks of high performance triboelectric nanogenerators based on liquid-solid interface contact electrification for harvesting low-frequency blue energy. Adv. Energy. Mater. 2018, 8, 1800705.
120. Xu, M.; Wang, S.; Zhang, S. L.; et al. A highly-sensitive wave sensor based on liquid-solid interfacing triboelectric nanogenerator for smart marine equipment. Nano. Energy. 2019, 57, 574-80.
121. Wang, B.; Zhao, H.; Jin, C.; Xu, Y.; Ding, W. Ionic-electrostatic modeling of solid-liquid triboelectric nanogenerators. Iontronics 2026, 2, 17.
122. Cui, E.; Wu, P.; Wang, F.; et al. Dipole effect enhanced liquid stream-current generator. Matter 2026, 9, 102632.
123. Yu, Z.; Hu, Y.; Li, K.; et al. Shape-configurable and motion-designed droplet for high performance liquid-solid triboelectric nanogenerator. Nano. Energy. 2026, 149, 111723.
124. Chi, J.; Liu, C.; Che, L.; et al. Harvesting water-evaporation-induced electricity based on liquid-solid triboelectric nanogenerator. Adv. Sci. 2022, 9, 2201586.
125. Chen, B. D.; Tang, W.; He, C.; et al. Water wave energy harvesting and self-powered liquid-surface fluctuation sensing based on bionic-jellyfish triboelectric nanogenerator. Mater. Today. 2018, 21, 88-97.
126. Zhao, X. J.; Zhu, G.; Fan, Y. J.; Li, H. Y.; Wang, Z. L. Triboelectric charging at the nanostructured solid/liquid interface for area-scalable wave energy conversion and its use in corrosion protection. ACS. Nano. 2015, 9, 7671-7.
127. Zhan, F.; Wang, A. C.; Xu, L.; et al. Electron transfer as a liquid droplet contacting a polymer surface. ACS. Nano. 2020, 14, 17565-73.
128. Lin, Z. H.; Cheng, G.; Lee, S.; Pradel, K. C.; Wang, Z. L. Harvesting water drop energy by a sequential contact-electrification and electrostatic-induction process. Adv. Mater. 2014, 26, 4690-6.
129. Zhu, G.; Su, Y.; Bai, P.; et al. Harvesting water wave energy by asymmetric screening of electrostatic charges on a nanostructured hydrophobic thin-film surface. ACS. Nano. 2014, 8, 6031-7.
130. Dong, Y.; Xu, S.; Zhang, C.; et al. Gas-liquid two-phase flow-based triboelectric nanogenerator with ultrahigh output power. Sci. Adv. 2022, 8, eadd0464.
131. Xu, W.; Zheng, H.; Liu, Y.; et al. A droplet-based electricity generator with high instantaneous power density. Nature 2020, 578, 392-6.
132. Li, L.; Li, X.; Deng, W.; et al. Sparking potential over 1200 V by a falling water droplet. Sci. Adv. 2023, 9, eadi2993.
133. Chen, X.; Zhang, Y.; Huang, Y.; et al. Interfacial polarization-enhanced ultrahigh performance liquid droplet nanogenerator. Adv. Energy. Mater. 2025, 15, 2406116.
134. Ye, C.; Liu, D.; Gao, Y.; et al. Electrostatic breakdown at liquid-solid-gas triple-phase interfaces owing to contact electrification. Matter 2025, 8, 102007.
135. Lin, S.; Zhu, L.; Tang, Z.; Wang, Z. L. Spin-selected electron transfer in liquid-solid contact electrification. Nat. Commun. 2022, 13, 5230.
136. Gong, S.; Li, K.; Sun, J.; Chen, J.; Guo, H. Three-phase interfacial force regulated solid-like liquid-slider for highly efficient and robust triboelectric nanogenerator. Adv. Mater. 2025, 38, e16923.
137. Li, X.; Li, R.; Li, S.; Wang, Z. L.; Wei, D. Triboiontronics with temporal control of electrical double layer formation. Nat. Commun. 2024, 15, 6182.
138. Liu, W.; Liang, J.; Wang, Z.; Xu, H.; Liu, Y. Oxide-based electrolyte-gated transistors: an emerging electrochemical platform for iontronic neuromorphics. Iontronics 2026, 2, 22.
139. Du, Z.; Wang, Z.; Wang, S.; Liu, Z.; Li, Z.; Hou, C. Ion-conductive stretchable light-emitting devices. Iontronics 2026, 2, 15.
140. Hu, Y.; Yang, W.; Ma, Y.; et al. Solid-liquid interface charge transfer for generation of H2O2 and energy. Nat. Commun. 2025, 16, 1692.
141. Peng, X.; Zhu, F.; Jiang, Y.; et al. Identification of a quasi-liquid phase at solid-liquid interface. Nat. Commun. 2022, 13, 3601.
142. Li, X.; Chen, C.; Niu, Q.; Li, N. W.; Yu, L.; Wang, B. Self-assembly of nanoparticles at solid-liquid interface for electrochemical capacitors. Rare. Metals. 2022, 41, 3591-611.
143. Osali, S.; Ghiyasi, Y.; Esfahani, H.; Jose, R.; Ramakrishna, S. Electrospun nanomembranes at the liquid-liquid and solid-liquid interface - a review. Mater. Today. 2023, 67, 151-77.
144. Lee, W. H.; Yoon, S. G.; Jin, H.; et al. Electron density-change in semiconductor by ion-adsorption at solid-liquid interface. Adv. Mater. 2021, 33, 2007581.
145. Xie, L.; Lu, B.; Sima, Z.; et al. Mechanical-electric dual characteristics solid-liquid interfacing sensor for accurate liquid identification. Nat. Commun. 2025, 16, 7069.
146. Wu, Y.; Liu, Y.; Zhu, C.; Kong, X.; Wen, L. Olfactory-inspired nanofluidic sensor: molecular recognition and transport in confined space. Iontronics 2026, 2, 14.
147. Han, Y.; Zhang, R.; Liu, D.; Luo, J. Quantum-scale friction at solid-liquid interface: simulation, detection techniques, mechanisms, and emerging applications. Nano. Micro. Lett. 2026, 18, 230.
148. Zhao, X. J.; Kuang, S. Y.; Wang, Z. L.; Zhu, G. Electricity-free electroluminescence excited by droplet impact driven triboelectric field on Solid-Liquid interface. Nano. Energy. 2020, 75, 104823.
149. Liu, J.; Wen, Z.; Lei, H.; Gao, Z.; Sun, X. A liquid-solid interface-based triboelectric tactile sensor with ultrahigh sensitivity of 21.48 kPa-1. Nano. Micro. Lett. 2022, 14, 88.
150. Yi, F.; Wang, X.; Niu, S.; et al. A highly shape-adaptive, stretchable design based on conductive liquid for energy harvesting and self-powered biomechanical monitoring. Sci. Adv. 2016, 2, e1501624.
151. Wu, Y.; Luo, Y.; Qu, J.; Daoud, W. A.; Qi, T. Liquid single-electrode triboelectric nanogenerator based on graphene oxide dispersion for wearable electronics. Nano. Energy. 2019, 64, 103948.
152. Chen, X.; Xiong, J.; Parida, K.; et al. Transparent and stretchable bimodal triboelectric nanogenerators with hierarchical micro-nanostructures for mechanical and water energy harvesting. Nano. Energy. 2019, 64, 103904.
153. Xia, K.; Tian, Y.; Fu, J.; et al. Transparent and stretchable high-output triboelectric nanogenerator for high-efficiency self-charging energy storage systems. Nano. Energy. 2021, 87, 106210.
154. Gao, H.; Yang, Y.; Liu, Q.; Gu, G.; Zhang, J.; Wang, Z. L. Triboelectric spectroscopy for in situ detection of gas molecules in liquid. ACS. Nano. 2026, 20, 18172-80.
155. Li, X.; Luo, J.; Ping, J.; Wang, Z. L. Droplet-enabled controllable manipulation of tribo-charges from liquid-solid interface. Engineering 2025, 45, 132-42.
156. Zhang, J.; Wu, C.; Mo, X.; Hu, B.; Wang, Z. L. Triboelectric nanogenerators as a probe for studying charge transfer at liquid-solid interface. MRS. Bull. 2025, 50, 327-35.
157. Tang, Z.; Lin, S.; Wang, Z. L. Effect of surface pre-charging and electric field on the contact electrification between liquid and solid. J. Phys. Chem. C. 2022, 126, 8897-905.
158. Zhang, J.; Lin, S.; Wang, Z. L. Electrostatic charges regulate chemiluminescence by electron transfer at the liquid-solid interface. J. Phys. Chem. B. 2022, 126, 2754-60.
159. Tang, Z.; Lin, S.; Wang, Z. L. Quantifying contact-electrification induced charge transfer on a liquid droplet after contacting with a liquid or solid. Adv. Mater. 2021, 33, 2102886.
160. Lin, S.; Zheng, M.; Luo, J.; Wang, Z. L. Effects of surface functional groups on electron transfer at liquid-solid interfacial contact electrification. ACS. Nano. 2020, 14, 10733-41.
161. Zhang, J.; Lin, S.; Zheng, M.; Wang, Z. L. Triboelectric nanogenerator as a probe for measuring the charge transfer between liquid and solid surfaces. ACS. Nano. 2021, 15, 14830-7.
162. Zhang, J.; Lin, S.; Wang, Z. L. Triboelectric nanogenerator array as a probe for in situ dynamic mapping of interface charge transfer at a liquid-solid contacting. ACS. Nano. 2023, 17, 1646-52.
163. Zhang, J.; Wang, X.; Wu, N.; Gu, G.; Wang, Z. L. Time-resolved mapping of interface charge transfer for real-time observation of microscopic chemical reactions. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2026, 65, e1249028.
164. Wei, Y.; Li, X.; Gu, Y.; et al. Probing electrical double layer via triboelectric charge transfer. Nat. Commun. 2025, 17, 402.
165. Li, L.; Sun, H.; Wang, J.; Guo, Z. H.; Pu, X.; Sun, F. The next chapter of human-like tactile perception: neural decoding to embodied intelligence. SmartSys 2026, 2, e70024.
166. Long, Y.; Zhao, B.; Liu, M.; Hu, W.; Pu, X. Smart hydrogel tactile sensors and systems: a comprehensive review. SmartSys 2026, 1, e70015.
167. Long, Y.; Zhao, B.; Niu, J.; et al. Dynamically self-adjustable liquid-liquid and self-adaptive soft-contact solid-solid triboelectric nanogenerator for wave energy harvesting. Nano. Res. 2025, 18, 94907052.
168. Tang, Z.; Yang, D.; Guo, H.; Lin, S.; Wang, Z. L. Spontaneous wetting induced by contact-electrification at liquid-solid interface. Adv. Mater. 2024, 36, 2400451.
169. Luo, H.; Wang, H.; Yang, L.; et al. In situ nanofluid dispersion monitoring by liquid-solid triboelectric nanogenerator based on tuning the structure of the electric double layer. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2022, 32, 2200862.
170. Wei, X.; Wang, B.; Cao, X.; Zhou, H.; Wu, Z.; Wang, Z. L. Dual-sensory fusion self-powered triboelectric taste-sensing system towards effective and low-cost liquid identification. Nat. Food. 2023, 4, 721-32.
171. Feng, M.; Kong, X.; Feng, Y.; et al. A new reversible thermosensitive liquid-solid TENG based on a P(NIPAM-MMA) copolymer for triboelectricity regulation and temperature monitoring. Small 2022, 18, 2201442.
172. Kaswan, K.; Khan, A.; Chatterjee, S.; et al. Glassy metallic nanotube arrays-based solid-liquid triboelectric nanosensor for wastewater contaminants sensing and its treatment by thermocatalysts. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2025, 36, e26347.
173. Li, X.; Weng, M.; Liu, T.; et al. Bioinspired heterogeneous wettability triboelectric sensors for sweat collection and monitoring. Adv. Mater. 2025, 38, e09920.
174. Zhao, H.; Xu, M.; Shu, M.; et al. Underwater wireless communication via TENG-generated Maxwell’s displacement current. Nat. Commun. 2022, 13, 3325.
175. Han, S. H.; Kwon, S.; Baek, S.; Chung, T. Ionic circuits powered by reverse electrodialysis for an ultimate iontronic system. Sci. Rep. 2017, 7, 14068.
176. Li, T.; Qu, Z.; Si, J.; Lee, Y.; Bandari, V. K.; Schmidt, O. G. Monolithically integrated solid-state vertical organic electrochemical transistors switching between neuromorphic and logic functions. Sci. Adv. 2025, 11, eadt5186.
177. Jiang, F.; Poh, W. C.; Chen, J.; et al. Ion rectification based on gel polymer electrolyte ionic diode. Nat. Commun. 2022, 13, 6669.
178. Ling, Y.; Yu, L.; Guo, Z.; et al. Single-pore nanofluidic logic memristor with reconfigurable synaptic functions and designable combinations. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2024, 146, 14558-65.
179. Liu, W.; Mei, T.; Cao, Z.; et al. Bioinspired carbon nanotube-based nanofluidic ionic transistor with ultrahigh switching capabilities for logic circuits. Sci. Adv. 2024, 10, eadj7867.
180. Li, Z.; Myers, S. K.; Xiao, J.; et al. Neuromorphic ionic computing in droplet interface synapses. Sci. Adv. 2025, 11, eadv6603.
181. Zhang, Y.; Tan, C. M. J.; Toepfer, C. N.; Lu, X.; Bayley, H. Microscale droplet assembly enables biocompatible multifunctional modular iontronics. Science 2024, 386, 1024-30.
182. Kim, Y.; Kim, K. J.; Kim, S. H.; Choi, J. Unveiling ion dynamics in the electric-double layer under piezoionic actuation of chemo-mechanical energy harvesters. Adv. Energy. Mater. 2024, 14, 2402216.
183. Liu, J.; Li, C.; Lv, Q.; et al. Reconstruction of electric double layer on the anode interface by localized electronic structure engineering for aqueous Zn ion batteries. Adv. Energy. Mater. 2024, 14, 2401118.
184. Vallem, V.; Roosa, E.; Ledinh, T.; et al. A soft variable-area electrical-double-layer energy harvester. Adv. Mater. 2021, 33, 2103142.
185. Gao, G.; Yu, J.; Yang, X.; et al. Triboiontronic transistor of MoS2. Adv. Mater. 2018, 31, 1806905.
186. Kim, J.; Kang, M.; Lee, S.; So, C.; Chung, D. S. Interfacial electrostatic-interaction-enhanced photomultiplication for ultrahigh external quantum efficiency of organic photodiodes. Adv. Mater. 2021, 33, 2104689.
187. Dai, X.; Liang, Q.; Wu, Y.; et al. Ultrathin and highly conformal self-powered sensors by liquid-phase transferring. Research 2025, 8, 0785.
188. Song, Y.; Melik, R.; Rabie, A. N.; et al. Electrochemical activation and inhibition of neuromuscular systems through modulation of ion concentrations with ion-selective membranes. Nat. Mater. 2011, 10, 980-6.
189. Hook MJ, Nawy S, Thoreson WB. Voltage- and calcium-gated ion channels of neurons in the vertebrate retina. Prog. Retin. Eye. Res. 2019, 72, 100760.
190. Pressey, J. C.; De, Saint-rome. M.; Raveendran, V. A.; Woodin, M. A. Chloride transporters controlling neuronal excitability. Physiol. Rev. 2023, 103, 1095-135.
191. Wu, R.; Benzenberg, L. R.; Svingou, D.; Zenobi, R. The structure of cyclic neuropeptide somatostatin and octapeptide octreotide in the presence of copper ions: insights from transition metal ion FRET and native ion mobility-mass spectrometry. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2023, 145, 10542-7.
192. Tibbs, G. R.; Posson, D. J.; Goldstein, P. A. Voltage-gated ion channels in the PNS: novel therapies for neuropathic pain? Trends. Pharmacol. Sci. 2016, 37, 522-42.
193. Didier, M. E. P.; Tarun, O. B.; Jourdain, P.; Magistretti, P.; Roke, S. Membrane water for probing neuronal membrane potentials and ionic fluxes at the single cell level. Nat. Commun. 2018, 9, 5287.
194. Devine, M. J.; Kittler, J. T. Mitochondria at the neuronal presynapse in health and disease. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 2018, 19, 63-80.
195. Luo, F.; Sclip, A.; Merrill, S.; Südhof, T. C. Neurexins regulate presynaptic GABAB-receptors at central synapses. Nat. Commun. 2021, 12, 2380.
196. Zimmerman, A. L.; Kovatsis, E. M.; Pozsgai, R. Y.; Tasnim, A.; Zhang, Q.; Ginty, D. D. Distinct modes of presynaptic inhibition of cutaneous afferents and their functions in behavior. Neuron 2019, 102, 420-34.e8.
197. Yin, J.; Jia, P.; Ren, Z.; et al. Recent advances in self-powered sensors based on ionic hydrogels. Research 2025, 8, 0571.
198. Kells, P. A.; Gautam, S. H.; Fakhraei, L.; Li, J.; Shew, W. L. Strong neuron-to-body coupling implies weak neuron-to-neuron coupling in motor cortex. Nat. Commun. 2019, 10, 1575.
199. Stürner, T.; Brooks, P.; Serratosa, Capdevila. L.; et al. Comparative connectomics of Drosophila descending and ascending neurons. Nature 2025, 643, 158-72.
200. Midya, R.; Pawar, A. S.; Pattnaik, D. P.; et al. Artificial transneurons emulate neuronal activity in different areas of brain cortex. Nat. Commun. 2025, 16, 7289.
201. Kuijpers, M.; Haucke, V. Neuronal autophagy controls the axonal endoplasmic reticulum to regulate neurotransmission in healthy neurons. Autophagy 2021, 17, 1049-51.
202. Vandael, D.; Okamoto, Y.; Jonas, P. Transsynaptic modulation of presynaptic short-term plasticity in hippocampal mossy fiber synapses. Nat. Commun. 2021, 12, 2912.
204. Li, S.; Sheng, Z. Energy matters: presynaptic metabolism and the maintenance of synaptic transmission. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 2021, 23, 4-22.
205. Mojumder, M. R. H.; Kim, S.; Yu, C. Soft artificial synapse electronics. Research 2025, 8, 0582.





