fig13

Figure 13. Closed-loop glucose monitoring system for diabetes management. (A) In vivo evaluation of the integrated wearable closed-loop system (IWCS) on a diabetic rat; (B) Schematic of the electrochemically triggered insulin release electrode; (C) Fluorescence images visualizing insulin release before (left) and after (right) electrical triggering; (D) Mechanism of the redox-responsive Fe³⁺/Fe²⁺ hydrogel sol-gel transition; (E) Schematic of iontophoretic insulin delivery in an in vitro agar model; (F) System block diagram for closed-loop glucose monitoring; (G) Comparison of real-time glucose monitoring between the RIMN sensor and standard blood glucose (BG) measurements; (H) Statistical analysis of detection error; (I) Clarke’s error grid analysis confirming clinical accuracy. (A-D) Reproduced with permission Copyright 2025, Microsystems & Nanoengineering^[227]. (E, G-I) Reproduced with permission Copyright 2021, Advanced Science^[77]. RIMN: Reverse iontophoresis microneedle; WE: working electrode; NPs: nanoparticles; SA: sodium alginate; MCU: microprogrammed control unit; ADC: analog-to-digital converter; DAC: digital-to-analog converter; IMN: iontophoretic microneedle.